So you've now mastered NZ's approximately 600 macro-moths* and wondering where to go next? The obvious answer, probably, is to venture into studying NZ's much larger and diverse micro-moth fauna. To the beginner this presents a significant challenge as NZ's micro-moths have traditionally been little studied, hence there is a paucity of reference material available to professional and amateur alike. However, trust me the rewards can be well worth the effort.
Stigmella hoheriae, photo Olly Ball
Micro-moths exhibit a fascinating diversity of form and habits as their generally smaller size allows them to exploit a wider range of habitat niches. While many are associated in some way with the higher plants, in NZ a considerable number are found in the most unexpected places such as ferns and mosses, algae and fungi, and on decaying plant or animal materials.
Many, especially when viewed under some form of magnification, are simply exquisite, exhibiting inexplicable marking and adorned in a range of metallic hues – resulting in the obvious question, why? I'll leave the reader to answer that one. Of course, there are also 'little brown jobs' which fit the public's perception of nuisance or pest moths, but these are also essential to the efficient functioning of ecosystems.
Macarostola miniella, photo Olly Ball
As previously mentioned, while studying micro-moths can be a rewarding pastime, to the beginner it can seem quite daunting, not least due to the lack of modern and comprehensive identification field guides. Since Hudson's seminal publications: The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand (1928, 1939), now inevitably out of date and definitely not a field guide, there has been little published on NZ's approximately 1200 micro-moth fauna. There are however a couple of on-line tools available on iNaturalist, which aim to provide the amateur some assistance with their identification.
When attempting to identify a particular micro-moth it is probably best to start at a higher taxonomic level, i.e. families, as they are defined by a range of characters. It should be noted that it may be impossible to identify on external characteristics alone. Features such as the resting position of the wings, antennae and body of a living adult may be sufficient to identify which family it belongs to. Labial palps, the moths’ mouthparts, are another distinguishing feature and easily observed with a hand lens or a low-powered microscope.
Today many who study moths do not wish to kill or set moths and use the medium of photography to record their observations. The advent of on-line 'citizen science' biodiversity recording platforms such as iNaturalist has certainly transformed the hobby. Images can be uploaded via a freely available app and the observation identified, initially by accepting the iNaturalist provided suggestion, or more frequently and probably more accurately by community experts in the respective field. To be accepted as 'research quality' identification needs to be supported by two or more.
However, for the serious enthusiast who seeks to extend knowledge of NZ's micro-moth fauna, with the potential of discovering a new species, a reference collection is essential. As Dr Robert Hoare states “To gain a knowledge of the smaller moths there is currently little alternative to forming a reference collection and periodically taking specimens into a museum or reference collection to identify them”. It should be noted that a digital image is no substitute for a voucher specimen as you can't dissect a photograph!
Many of the techniques and equipment for studying our macro-fauna are applicable to our smaller micro-moths. However, the effectiveness of a particular method applied to micros may be noticeably different and therefore could impact on where you should direct your efforts for maximum benefit.
Light trapping: Many micro-moth families, e.g. Crambidae, Tortricidae and Pyralidae can be regularly attracted, sometimes in large numbers, to UV and other types of lamp. Other moth families are less inclined to do so: indeed some seem to avoid them altogether and must be sought out by other means. Micro-moths are also more likely to be damaged by larger and more active moths while residing in the trap, adding to the difficulty of their subsequent identification. However, be aware that caddisflies and other potential micro-moth 'impersonators' are likely to comprise a proportion of visitors and can be difficult to separate for the beginner.
By torchlight: Adult micro-moths will seek nectar on similar flower species as the larger moths, hence an examination of using a torch accompanied by a butterfly net should reward the intrepid hunter. Also, when walking through the bush keep your eyes open for micros quietly sat on vegetation and those that take off when accidentally disturbed.
Daylight hunting: A surprising number of micro-moths can be recorded during daylight hours. There are those specialists which are best sought out during the day and those usually active at night that can be 'swept' from their daytime roosting sites. Most micro-moths are not fast flying and do not fly far if disturbed so all that is required to secure the specimen is a good netting technique.
Pheromones: A number of artificial pheromone lures have been developed for monitoring and control of pest species, and in micro-moths for species in the Tortricidae and Pyralidae. However, other 'desirable' species are sometimes attracted.
Early stages: For some moth enthusiasts a real treat is in store if they elect to extend their identification skills in the search for larvae and rearing them on to adulthood. In NZ there are many species that have never been reared and their biology totally unknown. For some species, apart from employing dissection techniques, it's the only reliable method via plant association, for distinguishing a particular species from another.
*Micro-moths make up around 64% of NZ's fauna. While there are about 680 macro-moths the key difference between the two groups lies in their evolutionary history and the families they belong to. Micro-moths mainly represent earlier evolved families.
Moths and butterflies are insects which together form the order called Lepidoptera, meaning 'scaly-winged'. The patterns and colours of their wings are formed by thousands of tiny scales, overlapping like tiles on a roof. These scales have been magnified 300 times.
At the last count there are around 1,880 named species of Lepidoptera found in NZ, including around 30 butterflies, while the UK with a similar land area includes over 2,500 species of moth though fewer than 70 butterflies. An important difference between the two regions is that in NZ over 85% are endemic, occurring nowhere else. Also, there are possibly over 200 species in NZ still to be named.
There are no simple rules for telling moths from butterflies and most of the differences are minor. Moths and butterflies share the same basic biology and have far more similarities than differences. According to Robert Hoare, entomologist at Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research “butterflies are simply a group of specialised, day-flying Lepidoptera”, i.e. modified moths since they evolved from moth ancestors. However, in general the swollen tips of butterfly antennae distinguish them from day-flying moths. Also, commonly we associate moths with night flying.
As there are so many more species of moths than butterflies, experts split them into two groups, the larger or macro-moths and the smaller, or micro-moths.
There are around 680 macro-moths in NZ (900 in Great Britain), whilst micro-moths make up around 64% of NZ's fauna. Many micro-moths are very small indeed with a forewing length less than 4 mm, although confusingly a few of them are larger than the smallest macro-moths!
Moths vary greatly in appearance as well as size. For example, NZ's largest and best known puriri moth comes in a range of colours, from the typical pale green through yellow, blue to salmon pink. They also come in a range of sizes with small males having a forewing length of less than 27 mm while large females are up to 70 mm.
Other shapes are characteristic of different moth families, i.e. plume moths having delicate feathery wings. Colours and patterns also vary, some very bright and bold while others have wonderful camouflage.
Moths are very diverse in their ecology too, and can be found in surprising habitats, not just native forests, gardens, and farmland but also wetlands, coastlines and even mountain tops! You can also see moths at any time of the year, including mid-winter, although summer months are generally more productive.
EcoFest is a month-long Auckland-wide festival celebrating the environment of Tāmaki Makaurau and promoting sustainable living, featuring events, activities, and workshops for all ages, with the goal of making sustainability fun and accessible. As part of EcoFest this event in Blockhouse Bay involves the whole community - it's a Treasure Hunt around the Blockhouse Bay shops.
Blockhouse Bay shops and businesses will be displaying an image of one of 16 different NZ butterfly species, similar to the one below.
Entry forms (see below) can be downloaded from this page and throughout the school holidays (11-21 April) children/families will be looking out for one of the butterflies on display and identifying the store/business where that butterfly is on display.
They will bring their completed entry form along to our fun celebration for Earth Day in the Blockhouse Bay Recreational Reserve on Tuesday 22 April between 1-3pm. Find the Rathlin Street entrance and look for the flags! There will be crafts (make your own butterfly!), facepainting and more fun, fun, fun!
Want to spread the word? Feel free to display this poster.
Entry Forms:
On 16 March I found this monstrous caterpillar on a nettle leaf inside the admiral caterpillar enclosure. It was at least 4cm long.
It was identified as being the common green garden looper, Chrysodeixis eriosoma, which had been parasitised by a wasp. Vegetable crops attacked include basil, cabbage, celery, Chinese pea, corn, eggplant, green beans, lettuce, mint, parsley, peas, potato, spinach, sweet potato, and tomato. I isolated it to see what would eventuate - I didn't want parasitic wasps anywhere near my caterpillar enclosure!
Twelve days later there must have been somewhere in excess of 700 tiny, black wasps came out of the cocoon! It made my skin crawl looking at such a large number of them milling around. They have taken around 12 days to hatch.
Luckily if they had they managed to remain hidden in my butterfly house there is only one chrysalis left that they could have infected, but in the outdoors, they would have been ready to parasitise the caterpillars of the next generation of butterflies that would have overwintered.
Of course, it was a bald, thin-skinned looper that was attacked. I have never captive raised monarchs, but I have brought in plenty of chrysalises to hatch indoors - particularly at the end of the season when the weather turns bad. I have never seen any that were parasitised. I would have thought the hairs on the admiral caterpillars would have given them some protection, but evidently they do have a major problem with parasitism.
Caterpillars shedding their skin may help to dislodge eggs laid on the outside by parasitic flies - or so I would have thought. I am just thankful that over 75 of my butterflies have hatched successfully and been released (around 50 reds and more than 25 yellows) - just one tail ender to go.
I put the container of parasitic wasps in my freezer. We are working on getting them identified and here are some close-up photos of the dead wasps.
I have real concerns for the monarch butterfly in NZ (and of course we already know it’s in real trouble in North America).
There are pockets around our country where people see plenty of eggs being laid early in the season, and those people of course say, “there are lots here in my garden” (or similar). But most monarch-lovers are concerned: their swan plants are devoid of eggs.
Firstly, some facts:
• Monarchs do not mate until they are three to eight days old. When they mate, they remain together from one afternoon until early the next morning – often up to 16 hours.
• Male monarchs tend to stake out the milkweed patch (swan plants), waiting for females to come by, whereupon mating will take place.
• Females begin laying eggs immediately after their first mating. Both sexes usually mate several times during their lifetime.
• Female monarchs can smell a milkweed from 2 km away. After laying eggs at one spot, she will move on to find more places to lay eggs.
• A female monarch typically lays 300-400 eggs. In a lab study, one monarch laid 1,179.
• It takes about 28 days for a monarch to go through its metamorphosis and become an adult. Typically, eggs hatch after about five days. The caterpillars go through five instars and form a chrysalis (pupate) after about two weeks. The butterfly ecloses (or emerges, but never "hatches") about ten days later.
Depending on your region, overwintering monarchs return to your garden in the latter half of the year for the summer (Month 1).
In Month 1, let’s say three female monarchs return from overwintering and lay eggs. Each lays 300 eggs (300 x 3 = 900), but let’s imagine that 90% are lost to predators/parasites/disease. We would now have 90 butterflies, half of which might be female and are laying eggs.
Month 2, 300 eggs from 45 butterflies, 10% survive would give us 1350 adults, 675 females.
Month 3, following this exponential increase might mean we have over 10,000 of each sex.
Month 4, we would have almost 152,000 females, 152,000 males.
My figures are conservative. You can see that the number of monarchs increase exponentially as the season progresses… or rather should increase. But over the past 10-20 years, the social wasps and other factors may have changed the habitat so much that Month 1, for me, is now the equivalent of February. There is hardly time for the butterflies to build up numbers before winter. Instead of there being tens of thousands of monarchs flying around Auckland, it could be closer to a thousand. No wonder I’m not seeing them in historical overwintering sites!
Not all of the butterflies survive the winter. There are hardly enough to sustain the population, and not enough to grow the population! And we hear of overwintering colonies that are being devoured by rats – and with the vagaries in our weather these days...
Where is “Month 1” in your corner of NZ, your street... your community? You might have a thriving population of monarchs in your garden… but for the population to be stable, there needs to be more safe butterfly habitat around/less social wasps. When someone says to me “there are lots here (monarchs) in my garden”, I know what they mean, but I have a nationwide focus:
My experience:
1. I have been driving a car for 60 years. I have memories of driving from A to B and seeing monarchs flying across a street in front of me. These are individual monarchs, and I later learned from Professor Myron Zalucki (at a MBNZT conference) that these were more than likely females, flying off to find the next milkweed to lay more eggs. I hardly ever see monarchs flying from garden to garden now.
2. In the 20th Century everyone who went to school in NZ learned about monarchs, as it was a simple and captivating way to teach about metamorphosis. Today, a high number of children and adults have never experienced the monarch at school – some of these people have migrated from densely populated urban areas where there is no "wilderness", and English is their second language. There are other people are only interested in indigenous species. And again, many (younger) people spend more time on digital devices than experience nature and the outdoors.
3. Do you remember when it was the norm to run out of swan plant – we would be desperate to find more swan plants to feed the hungry caterpillars? Today, because the earlier generations of monarchs become food (protein) for juvenile wasps, the swan plant is becoming unmanageable in some areas. “It’s a noxious weed,” some people are saying. Could it become listed as a pest plant?
4. I have had WWOOFers staying with me for 30-something years. Ten years ago, when they looked for monarch eggs it was not surprising to find leaves with three eggs on. The WWOOFer would get so excited! Now, we are lucky if we find any eggs at all.
Rowena Algar-Magee in Australia found one leaf this summer with SEVEN eggs on it!
5. People from close to overwintering sites typically say there are less monarchs each year – but since a report and map published in 2004 of Christchurch overwintering sites there are no official records – this is all anecdotal evidence.
1. Tag monarch butterflies. If you can do so, please join our tagging project. More information here.
2. SHARE! If there are teachers in your immediate network, please share this blog post with them. If you’re on social media, could you post something on your Facebook page? Do you post on Neighbourly? There is a suggested message* below – feel free to copy any images of tagged butterflies from our site.
3. Plant! Plant swan plant seed, or if you see plants at the garden centre, take home three and plant them around your house. Plant nectar flowers in spots around the garden too.
4. If you are raising monarchs, or covering swan plants, be careful about HYGIENE. Don't raise monarch diseases - keep everything sanitised and clean.
5. Please monitor known overwintering sites and share your observations with us. There is a special page on iNaturalist.
6. The majority of our work is funded by our financial memberships or donations. If you are not a financial member, we would welcome you – more information here. If you would like to make a donation, there is a green button at the top of this page.
7. Even if you're not interested in monarchs, remember that the monarch is an indicator species: with its large wings and bright colours it is much easier to see than other invertebrates. Are our native invertebrates likewise under threat? Are you not seeing them because you don't know about them, because you don't look for them - or because they've disappeared?
8. If you would like to do more, or have a suggestion, please add your comment below, or feel free to email me, .
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* Read this to understand why the monarch butterfly is under threat in NZ : https://www.nzbutterflies.org.nz/monarchs-and-maths-jacqui-knight/ .
When you have a beautiful swan plant but it's "top heavy" with all the new growth, it's at risk of storm damage when the wind gets up. Here's something you can do and you actually DOUBLE the amount of food you have for hungry caterpillars.
1. Use sharp secateurs, and have a bucket of water and a hammer at the ready.
2. Cut just above a node* and cut on an angle as indicated by the scissors in the photo. The reason for this is that if you cut straight across, rainwater can sit there and rot the stem. With an angled cut and the water is more likely to run off.
(* a node is where the petiole attaches to the stem. A great deal of metabolic activity happens here, promoting the growth of leaves, secondary stems and flowers)
You cut just above the node so that the two shoots from the node will then turn into branches of gorgeous, healthy leaves. You've doubled your food supply! The original stem above the node will die and if you leave it there, it may attract disease, hence cutting close to the node.
![Img 1183[1]](https://www.nzbutterflies.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/IMG_11831-217x290.jpg)
3. With the branch you've cut off IMMEDIATELY use the hammer to break up the cut end (about 1cm above the cut) and plunge it into the bucket of water. This will prevent the sap from sealing off the cut and the plant will be able to continue to ingest water. Some pieces even strike roots and you can plant them out later!
When you get caterpillars you can let them feed on the cuttings first. Make sure the caterpillars can't fall into the water though.
There are more swan plant hacks on our YouTube channel.
The Pukerua Bay Scientific Reserve extends west 35km north of Wellington, adjacent the old SH1, and managed by DOC and classified as a Designated Ecological Site. Together with the Raroa Bush and the Wairaka Gorge there is 35 ha which has extensive predator control, especially to manage the Threatened and At-Risk plant, bird and lizard species.
Walking the Pukerua Bay Scientific reserve along the narrow coastal path on a windless, sunny, midwinter morning in July, (14 degrees Celsius) , I savoured the last weekend of the school holidays along with other scattered family groups. I observed and photographed 42 Common copper butterflies Lycaena salustius, sunning themselves on vegetation refreshed from the previous two days of rain. Other butterflies were observed higher up the slope but were not counted or photographed.
Both male and female butterflies were present in about equal numbers and two pairs were seen making mating overtures. Only two butterflies showed signs of wear and tear, the rest were in pristine condition which suggests they may have been newly hatched.
Pukerua Bay has its own microclimate tucked away from the southerly winds: perhaps these warmer mid-winter conditions were conducive to hatching a new batch of common coppers. I was pleased to see so many adult butterflies about in mid-winter. On the same walk and same duration three months previously, I photographed 52 common copper butterflies.
This morning, I witnessed an opportunist piwakawaka taking advantage of natures’ bounty. I was stunned as the butterfly I had just admired and photographed, jerkily flew off and was snatched in mid-air by this piwakawaka.
I observed this bird using its acrobatic manoeuvres to successfully catch another two common coppers. The common copper’s jerky flying strategy didn’t foil this clever insect specialist. Was this a random action or a common occurrence, as piwakawaka are here in numbers in this habitat and would have ample opportunity to perfect catching this food source.
Native and non-native flora
It is pleasing to see both native and non-native flowering plants providing food sources for the common copper in the reserve. The non-native or so-called weeds, are useful sources of nectar when the natives aren’t flowering.
Pohuehue Muehlenbeckia australis thrives on this sloping hillside and is the host plant on which common coppers lay their eggs. It shelters the pupae underneath the plant until they are ready to eclose. Other natives providing nectar and a sunny place to rest were kaihua or NZ jasmine Parsonsia heterophylla; beach spinach Tetragonia trigyna; shore bindweed Calystegia soldanella and taupata Coprosma repens.
Non-natives included the pink scrambling fumitory Fumaria muralis; Velvety nightshade Solanum chenopodioies, white clover Trifolium repens, and Bermuda buttercup Oxalis pes caprae.
Common coppers were not the only insects enjoying the sun. Four rusty dotted triangle moths Mnestictena flavidalis flitted from bush to bush, a grasshopper Trigonidium maoricum, a yellow-shouldered stout hoverfly Simosyrphus grandicornis, and a large hoverfly Melanguna novaezelandiae along with bumblebees and flies were also seen.
We all want to have healthy butterflies visiting our garden and know that to produce healthy butterflies we need healthy host plants. Take for example the monarch butterfly: it’s important that you grow healthy milkweed, and you don’t want to lose the milkweed to diseases, parasites or other predators (in fact, the monarch butterfly caterpillar is considered a ‘predator’).
How do we grow healthier swan plants, the most common milkweed in New Zealand? A recent article in the Winter magazine of the MBNZT was helpful, but we need to know more about the telltale signs that our plants are not thriving. At this time of the year (midwinter) little can be done to help the swan plants that are still alive - they will either survive or not survive.
Tropical milkweeds look sad, with rusty leaves and sometimes deformed leaves.
Swan plants, however, that have survived the summer may be carrying a virus and it is best to dispose of them, carefully, as you don’t want to spread the virus further.
Viruses are among the smallest and simplest entities that can cause disease. They can only be seen when magnified thousands of times using an electron microscope, so very hard to diagnose. There are over 2,000 known viruses, ¼ of them attack and cause diseases in plants.
The symptoms can be caused by environmental factors, insect damage or improper nutrition – so they are hard to diagnose. Most are dependent on a vector such as aphids, thrips, leafhoppers or whitefly. It is most important to prevent the infection and eradicate the source.
Never buy sickly plants. Growing from seeds is a reliable way of starting healthy plants.
Always disinfect tools used for propagation or pruning. Dip them in a 10% solution, making sure it touches all parts. This will kill any viruses within seconds. Rinse and dry your tools well.
Also remove weeds that may harbour viruses of their insect vectors from around your desired plants. And the biggest challenge of all: maintain insect control.
Aphids are probably the most problematic of the pests you’re likely to find on your swan plants and other milkweed. Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and typically flightless females can give live birth to female nymphs that may already be pregnant! These aphids will breed profusely so that the numbers can increase very quickly. And later in the season they may produce wings which will allow them to colonise new plants.
Not only that, but ants are soon attracted to the aphids. The aphids produce a byproduct called ‘honeydew’ and ants are known to milk the aphids. Honeydew is rich in sugar an as the weather gets warmer ants become more active, seeking more honeydew. (Note: ants will also eat insect eggs!)
The honeydew will also fall onto lower leaves of your plant, attracting other insects… and mould, sooty mould. Another vector to bring diseases to your plant!
So in summary, as spring approaches, remove any diseased plants and start afresh when the weather gets warmer. Put plants that you suspect have viruses straight into a plastic bag and into the rubbish – do not compost them or the sick leaves.
When it’s warmer, plant your new seeds, or look out for healthy plants in the shops. And each day, check your plants for the likelihood of vectors such as aphids. If you want to raise caterpillars your strategy will need to be pesticide-free.
Please read this page carefully. It will tell you how to tag a butterfly and also how to record your releases.
Your tags are being issued and will be sent by regular mail so watch for the postie! If you have any questions please email Jacqui ().
You are VERY unlikely to hurt a butterfly while tagging although everyone is anxious the first time. Wash your hands and rinse them well first. Be gentle but firm. When a butterfly emerges (or ecloses) its wings will be damp. All of the haemolymph inside the butterfly's abdomen will be pumped into the wings, and they need time to harden up. A few hours later you will notice the butterfly will be opening and closing its wings, preparing for flight. This is a good time to tag!
You can tag wild caught monarchs as well as ones you have raised.
Check out this video here for an explanation of the tagging process.
Note:
* Tags no longer come in plastic bags
* It is easier to work with cool butterflies, and indoors.
Other methods of holding the butterfly/tagging.
When you tag your butterfly you will record it here: Recording Releases .
We urge you to record the release as soon as possible after the release. It is better to do it at the time while the information is fresh in your mind. This other information will be useful for our research analysts.
Please bookmark the page for Recording Releases so you can easily use it each time you do a release.
There is a template here if you wish to practise tagging with your class, using dot stickers (8mm) available from a stationery store.
I am often asked for a list of plants to provide nectar for our butterflies. This is a difficult question to answer because so much depends on your area (region), your landscape, soil, aspect, site and what you want. There are trees, shrubs, perennials, annuals, vines, ground covers that can provide nectar for our butterflies, moths and pollinators.
This subject is covered in much more detail in our Online Course.
Here’s a quick answer: If you have a specific species of butterfly or moth you would like to attract, my suggestion is to go for a walk around your neighbourhood to see what that species is nectaring on, and if you like the plant, identify it and ask for it at your garden centre or among gardening friends. You can usually be confident the soil nearby will be similar to yours and certainly the climate should be similar.
While some people like to plant only perennials or along a colour theme, other gardeners might want natives. Bear in mind that butterflies fly during the day and prefer colourful flowers. Many NZ plant species have small, white flowers to attract pollinators and many of NZ’s pollinators fly at night. Others have flowers which smell like rotting meat to attract pollinators that eat carrion.
80% of our native trees, ferns and flowering plants are endemic. Over 90% of our Lepidoptera species are endemic!
Butterflies need to be able to land on something to nectar: they don’t hover like some pollinators. Daisy shapes are favoured because the butterflies have a landing pad of the petals. Another consideration is that the butterfly needs to be able to get its proboscis into the nectary. It wants to feed on nectar to sustain itself – picking up pollen and pollinating the flower is a happy accident. So double or complex arrangements of petals are no use.
And another important point to remember is that as plant propagators have improved flowering plants (to please people) in many cases the nectar quality has been lost, so choosing simple, traditional or unmodified plants is usually beneficial. Cineraria is a good example: the basic cineraria plant which you can see in cottage gardens is usually more favourable than one purchased from a garden centre.
Here is a list of native plants for a native garden. Some of these are host plants and others will provide nectar or in some cases structure. Plant a flax or cabbage tree near your milkweed and the leaves will be jewelled with pupae as the plant offers fresh air and sunlight while it provides protection from the rain.
Here is a very basic list of nectar-producing flowering plants. This list is not exhaustive but I have selected a few flowering plants, including trees and shrubs, which are reasonably easy to find and will grow in most parts of NZ.
Just as many people ask me “what is a good plant for nectar” many other people tell me that the butterflies prefer a plant that I don’t have. There is much more information in our Create Butterfly Habitat Course online – and of course we welcome comments about other great nectar sources in the section below.
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